💡 Use have/has + been + past participle to report recent findings without naming who conducted the research — standard in journalistic and academic reporting.

💡 Use have not been + past participle for the negative form when reporting that something has not yet happened — the situation is still relevant now.

💡 Use have been + past participle to report a recent development with present relevance — we don’t know or don’t need to say who criticised them.

💡 Use has been + past participle for a finding that remains currently relevant — the research is recent and its conclusions still apply today.

💡 Form questions with Have/Has + subject + been + past participle — here we ask about whether testing has occurred, without specifying who did it.

💡 Use are not + past participle to state a current general fact or rule in an impersonal, authoritative tone — typical of informational writing.

💡 Use are + past participle to describe a current regulation — the rule applies generally and continuously, so present simple passive is correct.

💡 Use is + past participle for widely-held views or general perceptions — this replaces the Italian ‘si vede’ construction. Do not use ‘One sees’.

💡 Use are + past participle to describe how things generally work — a current, ongoing situation presented impersonally.

💡 Form yes/no questions with Are + subject + past participle to ask about current rules or obligations — the passive keeps the focus on the regulation, not the regulator.

💡 After a past reporting verb (found), backshift the tense: present simple → past simple. ‘Believe’ becomes ‘believed’ in the reported clause.

💡 After a present reporting verb (warns), no backshift is needed — the situation is still current. Use the tense that reflects the current reality.

💡 After a past reporting verb (argued), backshift: present simple → past simple. ‘Does not provide’ becomes ‘did not provide’.

💡 After a present reporting verb (suggests), no backshift is required — use the tense that reflects the current situation accurately.

💡 After a past reporting verb (warned), backshift: past simple → past perfect. The stopping happened before the warning was given.

💡 ‘However’ connects two independent sentences separated by a full stop. It introduces a contrasting idea and is followed by a comma. It cannot join clauses with a comma alone.

💡 ‘Whereas’ is a subordinator that introduces a contrast clause at the start of a sentence. It is followed by a clause, not a new independent sentence.

💡 ‘And yet’ begins a new sentence to introduce a surprising or paradoxical contrast. It is stronger and more emphatic than ‘however’ and common in opinion writing.

💡 ‘While’ introduces a subordinate contrast clause. When it begins the sentence, a comma separates it from the main clause. Unlike ‘however’, it cannot start an independent sentence.

💡 ‘However’ is needed here to connect two independent sentences with a contrasting relationship. Note the full stop before it and the comma after it — both are required.

💡 ‘Report’ is a verb that must be followed by a gerund (-ing form), never by an infinitive. This is a fixed pattern: report + verb-ing.

💡 After the preposition ‘from’, always use a gerund (-ing form). Never use ‘to + infinitive’ after a preposition in English.

💡 ‘Recommend’ takes a gerund when the subject of both verbs is the same. Use recommend + verb-ing, not recommend + to-infinitive in this pattern.

💡 ‘Risk’ is a verb that must be followed by a gerund. Producing ‘risks to alienate’ is a direct transfer error from Italian (rischiare di + infinitive).

💡 After the preposition ‘before’, always use a gerund (-ing form). Key prepositions requiring gerunds: before, after, without, from, of, by, about.